Warrior Bio: Gallic Celts, circa 52 BCE.

Author's Note:  Feel free to offer comments, suggestions, and wanton banter in the section below!  As always, remember that I'm looking at one area of history and from a general standpoint - so don't expect the gear and traditions of Irish or Germanic Celts to leak over to this.  This bio is looking specifically at the Gallic Celts who would have faced off against the Romans at the Siege of Alesia in 52 BCE.  Oh yeah, the "X-Factor Assessment" is now renamed to the "Variable Assessment", as I think that's a little more professional.

A war-band of woad-covered Celtic warriors mass for battle.
Image used without permission from https://www.indymedia.ie/.

-Offensive Assessment

~Close Quarters Combat; Hand Ax, Club, Shield.  The majority of melee weapons of most Celtic (Gallic or otherwise) warriors would have been simple, everyday tools converted to wartime use.  The most common of these would have been the hand ax – a light, short-handled ax useful for chopping wood or enemy bodies.  It would not have been as advanced as the later Danish axes, likely lacking a beard or other mechanisms and instead focusing entirely on the long cutting edge.  The other melee weapon would have been the club – ranging in sophistication form something as simple as a stripped-down tree branch to a hefty truncheon hardened by fire and encased in strips of black iron.  Nevertheless, in the hands of an experienced fighter either of these weapons would have been deadly efficient killing tools.  However, their relatively low-technological level and inefficient methods earn a score of three (3) points of five (5) in this category.

~Weapons of Reach; Gaesum and La Tene Spears, Shield.  Gallic warriors would have used many types of spears – the two most common in Gaul would have been the gaesum and La Tene versions.  The gaesum featured a wide, unsharpened base to the spearhead intended to clip onto enemy shields and drag them down, as well as add more weight to the strike when contacting enemy bodies and armor.  The La Tene spear had a spearhead that was made in the shape of a flame – it had razor-sharp “waves” to it that increased the overall cutting surface while also reducing weight and making it more maneuverable.  The La Tene model was very useful against light infantry, as it could easily slash as well as thrust like most spears.  Both of these spears would have been between seven and nine feet in length; any longer would be too unwieldy for single combat, and shorter weapons would be better suited to be thrown as javelins.  The La Tene spear was referred to as a “lancea” by the Romans, taken from the Greek word “longche”, and gave rise to the medieval weapon “lance” of the same name.  The Gauls take nine (9) of ten (10) possible points in this category, as their weapons are both multipurpose and efficient.

This is an Episode of the History International Channel program, Conquest.  In it, you can see multiple examples of Celtic (Gallic, Hispanic,
Germanic, et al) weapons, armor, strategy and more.   It was not uploaded by me,
and is used without permission.  Here you can access Segments One, Two, and Three.

~Long-Distance Weapons; Sling-Stones, Javelins, Shield.  All Celtic peoples – Gauls, Britons, the Irish, Picts, Hispanics, Dacians and Thracians – hated to fight at a distance.  To them, missile bombardments only served as a precursor to actually fighting the enemy – they were used to inspire disorder and chaos within the enemy ranks.  They even chose to hunt with the spear rather than the bow, as it was more of a challenge to them.  In battle they would begin engagements with sporadic volleys of sling-stones and shortened spears (javelins) before closing to fight with spear and sword.  Despite this distaste of ranged-fighting, the Gauls loved the sling – it was a weapon simple to use and manufacture, but requiring great skill and dexterity to use efficiently; not unlike modern barroom dart-games.  The Gauls would feature exclusive bodies of men trained to master the sling, and used them in battle to chase down battle-line deserters and strike down leaders.  Additionally, all warriors would have carried at least two javelins strapped to their shields into battle, as they would be useful in disrupting enemy formations and harrying skirmishers.  The Celts get a score of twelve (12) of twenty (20) points here, as though their gear was somewhat efficient it left much to be desired.

~Specialized Weapons; Celtic Longsword, Shield.  The signature weapon of the Celts was the longsword.  It was a weapon designed to be just one thing in its existence:  a weapon.  The sword had no other purpose but to serve as a killing-tool in war, and from that it got a reputation of power and symbolism that struck the Celts in their hearts.  The longsword could be used well with one or both hands, with or without an accompanying shield, and required great athleticism and maturity in the wielder so as not to damage himself or his allies.  It was built to slash; originally the sword had been made to thrust as well, but the cutting action was more heroic to the Celts and so superseded it.  Averaging at four feet from pommel to rounded tip, the sword would present no less than three feet of killing potential to the enemy.  The Celtic longsword is credited as being the direct predecessor to the later Roman spatha and medieval broadsword.  These swords were great works of art in themselves; they were often decorated with intricate engravings, rich hilts, and bronze or (very rarely) golden hilt-work made into the shape of anthropomorphic, organic animal or human shapes.  When in the hands of a healthy, experienced warrior, it would seem to deserve far more than five (5) points in this category.

This video is an excellent representation of Celtic ironworking.  The video
was not uploaded by me, and is used without permission.  You can access it here.

-Defensive Assessment

~Head; Montefortino and Coolus Helmets.  Rather surprisingly, much of the Celtic armor at Alesia was similar to that found among the Romans of the day – the most glaring example being the Montefortino helmet.  This piece of gear was originally made of brass or leather, but once the pitched-combat between Gaul and Roman erupted at the Siege of Alesia they were made of the high-quality Gallic iron, which some modern enthusiasts and historians have suggested may be comparable to today’s steel.  The Montefortino helmet was constructed to give the user both great visibility and protection – it had detachable cheek-guards that could be secured under the chin by way of a simple strap, as well as a metal ridge that crossed over the front of the helmet to ward off overhead attacks.  Another type of helmet was the Coolus - it was a simple iron bowl with a prominent rise in the middle of it from which horsetails would be hung, as well as a long neck-piece to protect against back-strikes.  Both helmets would be reinforced by a thick leather arming cap and in colder climates a woolen aventail that would fall down over the neck and shoulders.  This lighter defense would be enough to disperse the energy of sling-stones and light javelins, but not enough to defend against a direct, physical assault.  Despite not being very common among Gallic warriors in the earlier parts of their development, by 42 BCE most of the fighters still on their feet were few and wealthy enough (possibly from battlefield pillaging) to possess this much-needed head protection.  The Gallic Celts get fifteen (15) out of twenty (20) points in this category.

~Torso; Maille, Leather.  The torso protection of Celtic warriors from Gaul was primarily a leather hauberk; this would have been worn loosely on the body, allowing it to flop around and not give cutting weapons a stiff surface to slice through.  However, it was virtually useless against most thrusting weapons such as arrows and spears, though its mobile surface did help against sling-stones and smaller projectiles.  The less common armor utilized by the Gauls was maille – a shirt composed of thousands of miniscule iron rings riveted tightly together.  This maille-shirt usually covered the wearer from waist to elbow, as well as all of the chest and back, though later developments increased the surface area by going down to the knees, ankles or wrists.  Naturally this was protection was extraordinarily expensive and rare among the Celts, only worn by noblemen, chieftains, and their household retainers.  As they often did with enemy cultures, the Romans adopted maille, calling it “lorica hamata” and by the time of the Siege of Alesia it was estimated that more Romans wore it than Gauls did.  These defensive mechanisms warrant a score of eight (8) of ten (10) possible points, due to their weaknesses and rarity, respectively.

This video showcases the arming and dress of a Celtic warrior before he
marches to battle.  The video was not uploaded by me, and is used without
permission.  You can access it here:  http://www.youtube.com/.

Limbs; Bracers.  The principle limb protection of the Gallic Celts was bracers – thick leather sleeves strapped onto the forearms.  They were occasionally reinforced with iron strips or lining, and were normally insulated on the inside with wool to prevent chafing against the skin.  Though they could not normally prevent a direct sword-blow, bracers were more than up to the task of stopping glancing strikes or saving the flesh from less-powerful attacks.  On a non-military note, the Germanic cousins of the Gauls were the inventors of pants and trousers – thick cloth or wool protection that would preserve the legs against the elements.  Different tribes would have different patterns on their trousers to help identify one another in battle, serving as a precursor to the much later Scottish tartan and kilts. The limb protection of the Celts gets an average three (3) of five (5) points.

~Mobile; Shield.  The Celtic shield was surprisingly uniform depending on the region – Gallic shields were oval-shaped pieces modeled after Roman officer scutum shields, while Briton shields were rectangular, and Gaelic shields were hexagonal in shape.  The Gallic shields were made from many wooden planks glued together in a technique not dissimilar to modern plywood-making.  Two halves of the oval would be made, and then fixed together by an iron boss-piece that provided a handgrip on the interior as well as a point of attack on the outside.  The outer face of the Gallic shields were often decorated with either cleaned animal hides, intricate metal-work, or organic shapes (animals, plants, people) painted onto them to show the user’s allegiance.  Unlike Roman shields, they were seldom lined with iron.  In conclusion, the Celtic shield was a sturdy piece of gear, but not too special – it only gets four (4) out of five (5) points in this category.

Here some Gauls engage their Roman enemies in a back-and-forth shield-brawl.
The Romans must be worried about this section of their line falling; hence the presence
of a military tribune officer or even a Praetorian Guardsman leading the defense.
This image is used without permission from http://www.france24.com/.

-X-Factor Assessment

~Tactics; the principle tactic of the Celts was to perform a “repeated charge”, wherein the warriors would line up against their foe, beat their weapons on their shields to get themselves into a frenzy, and then charge headlong at them.  They would fight for a few moments, then break and run back to their starting point to regroup, address casualties, and then do it again.   And again.  And again, until the enemy force was broken and fleeing.  Naturally this did not do well against the Imperial Roman war-machine in history, but against a lighter foe it may be more successful.  Additional Celtic tactics were learned from other peoples, like the Germans, Romans, Greeks and Carthaginians.  Though they initially only used the system of repeated charges, as the Celtic population spread over Europe individual tribes developed their own strategies – some near Greece fought in formations not unlike the phalanx, while Hispanic Celts used guerrilla tactics very effectively.  The Gauls, on the other hand, became pseudo-Roman in how they fought, organizing barrages of thrown javelins and massed charges as well as spear-wedges to break enemy formations.  However, Gallic tactics were very widespread in how well they performed and were developed, so they only get an average three (3) of five (5) points in this category.

~Training; Gallic warriors were notoriously well-trained.  They would take part in hunting exercises from an early age, where they would learn to wield the sling and bow, and the spear.  They would also learn the valuable arts of how to quietly stalk an enemy, and how to conserve stamina in order to corner a fleeing target.  All Gallic men took part in the day-to-day chores of chopping firewood, with many doubling as talented ironsmiths or experienced farmers.  The Gauls were notoriously excellent physical condition, which the Romans (even Julius Caesar) acknowledged in their recordings of the Gallic Wars.  Actual war-training was different from tribe to tribe, with the local headman deciding how often drills were to be conducted and for how long.  Some tribes would rehearse for battle on a daily basis, others weekly and still others seldom every few months.  But for the most part the Gauls were in a constant state of readiness to fight, and implemented that attitude into many aspects of their culture.  However, again their lack of true professionalism hurts them, as they come within just-perfect in this category, earning four (4) of five (5) points.

Though anachronistic in many aspects, this video is a great showcase of the final battle
at Alesia between Gallic and Roman forces.  Much of the weapons and armor
is incorrect, but it can give you a good idea of how both cultures would have fought.
The clip has been taken from the film "Vercingetorix", and was not uploaded by me.
It used without permission from http://www.gatopardos.com.

~Morale/Motivation; the Gauls were motivated to fight to preserve their freedom and to protect their families.  Whenever a larger tribe would defeat a younger one, the ensuing slaughter of civilians would have been terrible – so each warrior brought everything that he had to the table when going into combat, so as to preserve his family from such a fate.  When the Romans came to Alesia in 52 BCE, they regarded the Celtic peoples as uncivilized barbarians who could not even communicate with one another – they held them in contempt, believing them to be more animal than human.  The Celts were aware of this, and fought the Romans with a terrible determination, even if they were destroyed and the survivors enslaved.  That Celtic spirit of self-rule continued on through generation after generation, taking root in the highlands of Scotland, the island of Ireland, and through mass immigration, the New World.  For all of that it is easy to give the Gauls a perfect score of five (5) here.

~Innovation; if there was one place where the Gauls specialized more than any other, it was in innovation.  It seemed as though it were a national characteristic for them to be able to observe someone do something once, and then master it for themselves.  At Alesia, the Gauls fighting under the King Vercingetorix learned from the Romans how to fight in ordered ranks, coordinate their tactics, and to fight in a proper siege by digging tunnels under walls, building mobile siege-towers and utilizing spies and scouts efficiently.  They were also quite adept in the arts of psychological warfare; they learned to attack at night and early dawn, when most of the enemy camp would be sleeping or idle, terrifying them and catching them off-guard.  Additionally, when Caesar took his Legions into Gaul, following a great river in the region, Vercingetorix stalked them by leading his army on the opposite bank of the river, forever in sight but always out of reach.  This played like madness on the minds of the legionnaires, who were helpless to the enemy in front of them.  When actually in battle, the Gauls (like all Celts) made a great show of drama by painting and tattooing their bodies, stripping to the waist or even going forth unclothed, and wearing their prized jewelry – most notably the torc, a beautiful bronze or iron band worn around the neck with matching copies on the forearms – in full view of the enemy.  Some Celts even chose to dye their hair with lime and clay, causing it to stand up very fiercely.  For their terrifying appearance, numerous practical innovations, and more, the Gauls easily get another five (5) points in this final category.

This is the statue commemorated to the memory of Vercingetorix, King of
the Averni tribe of  Celtic Gaul, placed at Clermont-Ferrand in France where the Battle
 of Alesia is commonly believed to have taken place.  It is used without permission from http://his.nicolas.free.fr/.